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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="generator" content="pandoc">
<meta name="author" content="Eric M. Fink">
<meta name="dcterms.date" content="2017-02-16">
<title>Know Your Rights:</title>
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<div class="reveal">
<div class="slides">
<section id="title-slide">
<div class="title">
<h1 class="title">Know Your Rights:</h1>
<h2 class="title">Voting</h2>
<h3 class="title">Eric M. Fink</h3>
<h4 class="title">Elon Law School</h4>
<h5 class="date">16 February 2017</h5>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<section id="us-constitution" class="title-slide slide level1">
<h1>U.S. Constitution</h1>
</section>
<section id="th-amendment" class="title-slide slide level2">
<h2>15th Amendment</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
race, color, or previous condition of servitude.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
<section id="th-amendment" class="title-slide slide level2">
<h2>19th Amendment</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
sex.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
<section id="th-amendment" class="title-slide slide level2">
<h2>24th Amendment</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or
other election for President or Vice President, for electors for
President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in
Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any
state by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
<section id="th-amendment" class="title-slide slide level2">
<h2>26th Amendment</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>The right of citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age
or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States
or any state on account of age.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
</section>
<section>
<section id="voting-rights-act-of-1965"
class="title-slide slide level1">
<h1>Voting Rights Act of 1965</h1>
</section>
<section id="introduction1" class="title-slide slide level2">
<h2>Introduction<a href="#/fn1" class="footnote-ref" id="fnref1"
role="doc-noteref"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
<blockquote>
<p>The Voting Rights Act, adopted initially in 1965 and extended in
1970, 1975, and 1982, is generally considered the most successful piece
of civil rights legislation ever adopted by the United States Congress.
The Act codifies and effectuates the 15th Amendment’s permanent
guarantee that, throughout the nation, no person shall be denied the
right to vote on account of race or color. In addition, the Act contains
several special provisions that impose even more stringent requirements
in certain jurisdictions throughout the country.</p>
<p>Adopted at a time when African Americans were substantially
disfranchised in many Southern states, the Act employed measures to
restore the right to vote that intruded in matters previously reserved
to the individual states. Section 4 ended the use of literacy
requirements for voting in six Southern states (Alabama, Georgia,
Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia) and in many
counties of North Carolina, where voter registration or turnout in the
1964 presidential election was less than 50 percent of the voting-age
population. Under the terms of Section 5 of the Act, no voting changes
were legally enforceable in these jurisdictions until approved either by
a three-judge court in the District of Columbia or by the Attorney
General of the United States. Other sections authorized the Attorney
General to appoint federal voting examiners who could be sent into
covered jurisdictions to ensure that legally qualified persons were free
to register for federal, state, and local elections, or to assign
federal observers to oversee the conduct of elections.</p>
<p>Congress determined that such a far-reaching statute only in response
to compelling evidence of continuing interference with attempts by
African American citizens to exercise their right to vote. As the
Supreme Court put it in its 1966 decision upholding the
constitutionality of the Act:</p>
<p>“Congress had found that case-by-case litigation was inadequate to
combat wide-spread and persistent discrimination in voting, because of
the inordinant amount of time and energy required to overcome the
obstructionist tactics invariably encountered in these lawsuits. After
enduring nearly a century of systematic resistance to the Fifteenth
Amendment, Congress might well decide to shift the advantage of time and
inertia from the perpetrators of the evil to its victims.” <em>South
Carolina v. Katzenbach</em>, 383 U.S. 301, 327-28 (1966).</p>
<p>At the time the Act was first adopted, only one-third of all African
Americans of voting age were on the registration rolls in the specially
covered states, while two-thirds of eligible whites were registered. Now
black voter registration rates are approaching parity with that of
whites in many areas, and Hispanic voters in jurisdictions added to the
list of those specially covered by the Act in 1975 are not far behind.
Enforcement of the Act has also increased the opportunity of black and
Latino voters to elect representatives of their choice by providing a
vehicle for challenging discriminatory election methods such as at-large
elections, racially gerrymandered districting plans, or runoff
requirements that may dilute minority voting strength. Virtually
excluded from all public offices in the South in 1965, black and
Hispanic voters are now substantially represented in the state
legislatures and local governing bodies throughout the region.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
<section id="voting-rights-act-history2"
class="title-slide slide level2">
<h2>Voting Rights Act: History<a href="#/fn2" class="footnote-ref"
id="fnref2" role="doc-noteref"><sup>2</sup></a></h2>
</section>
<section id="the-1965-enactment" class="slide level3">
<h3>The 1965 Enactment</h3>
<blockquote>
<p>By 1965 concerted efforts to break the grip of state disfranchisement
had been under way for some time, but had achieved only modest success
overall and in some areas had proved almost entirely ineffectual. The
murder of voting-rights activists in Philadelphia, Mississippi, gained
national attention, along with numerous other acts of violence and
terrorism. Finally, the unprovoked attack on March 7, 1965, by state
troopers on peaceful marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge in
Selma, Alabama, en route to the state capitol in Montgomery, persuaded
the President and Congress to overcome Southern legislators’ resistance
to effective voting rights legislation. President Johnson issued a call
for a strong voting rights law and hearings began soon thereafter on the
bill that would become the Voting Rights Act.</p>
<p>Congress determined that the existing federal anti-discrimination
laws were not sufficient to overcome the resistance by state officials
to enforcement of the 15th Amendment. The legislative hearings showed
that the Department of Justice’s efforts to eliminate discriminatory
election practices by litigation on a case-by-case basis had been
unsuccessful in opening up the registration process; as soon as one
discriminatory practice or procedure was proven to be unconstitutional
and enjoined, a new one would be substituted in its place and litigation
would have to commence anew.</p>
<p>President Johnson signed the resulting legislation into law on August
6, 1965. Section 2 of the Act, which closely followed the language of
the 15th amendment, applied a nationwide prohibition against the denial
or abridgment of the right to vote on the literacy tests on a nationwide
basis. Among its other provisions, the Act contained special enforcement
provisions targeted at those areas of the country where Congress
believed the potential for discrimination to be the greatest. Under
Section 5, jurisdictions covered by these special provisions could not
implement any change affecting voting until the Attorney General or the
United States District Court for the District of Columbia determined
that the change did not have a discriminatory purpose and would not have
a discriminatory effect. In addition, the Attorney General could
designate a county covered by these special provisions for the
appointment of a federal examiner to review the qualifications of
persons who wanted to register to vote. Further, in those counties where
a federal examiner was serving, the Attorney General could request that
federal observers monitor activities within the county’s polling
place.</p>
<p>The Voting Rights Act had not included a provision prohibiting poll
taxes, but had directed the Attorney General to challenge its use. In
Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections, 383 U.S. 663 (1966), the
Supreme Court held Virginia’s poll tax to be unconstitutional under the
14th Amendment. Between 1965 and 1969 the Supreme Court also issued
several key decisions upholding the constitutionality of Section 5 and
affirming the broad range of voting practices that required Section 5
review. As the Supreme Court put it in its 1966 decision upholding the
constitutionality of the Act:</p>
<p>“Congress had found that case-by-case litigation was inadequate to
combat wide-spread and persistent discrimination in voting, because of
the inordinate amount of time and energy required to overcome the
obstructionist tactics invariably encountered in these lawsuits. After
enduring nearly a century of systematic resistance to the Fifteenth
Amendment, Congress might well decide to shift the advantage of time and
inertia from the perpetrators of the evil to its victims.”</p>
<p><em>South Carolina v. Katzenbach</em>, 383 U.S. 301, 327-28
(1966).</p>
</blockquote>
<aside id="footnotes-2" class="footnotes footnotes-end-of-section"
role="doc-footnote">
<hr />
<ol start="2">
<li id="fn2"><p>Source:
https://www.justice.gov/crt/history-federal-voting-rights-laws<a
href="#/fnref2" class="footnote-back" role="doc-backlink">↩︎</a></p></li>
</ol>
</aside>
</section>
<section id="the-1970-and-1975-amendments" class="slide level3">
<h3>The 1970 and 1975 Amendments</h3>
<blockquote>
<p>Congress extended Section 5 for five years in 1970 and for seven
years in 1975. With these extensions Congress validated the Supreme
Court’s broad interpretation of the scope of Section 5. During the
hearings on these extensions Congress heard extensive testimony
concerning the ways in which voting electorates were manipulated through
gerrymandering, annexations, adoption of at-large elections, and other
structural changes to prevent newly-registered black voters from
effectively using the ballot. Congress also heard extensive testimony
about voting discrimination that had been suffered by Hispanic, Asian
and Native American citizens, and the 1975 amendments added protections
from voting discrimination for language minority citizens.</p>
<p>In 1973, the Supreme Court held certain legislative multi-member
districts unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment on the ground that
they systematically diluted the voting strength of minority citizens in
Bexar County, Texas. This decision in White v. Regester, 412 U.S. 755
(1973), strongly shaped litigation through the 1970s against at-large
systems and gerrymandered redistricting plans. In Mobile v. Bolden, 446
U.S. 55 (1980), however, the Supreme Court required that any
constitutional claim of minority vote dilution must include proof of a
racially discriminatory purpose, a requirement that was widely seen as
making such claims far more difficult to prove.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
<section id="the-1982-amendments" class="slide level3">
<h3>The 1982 Amendments</h3>
<blockquote>
<p>Congress renewed in 1982 the special provisions of the Act, triggered
by coverage under Section 4 for twenty-five years. Congress also adopted
a new standard, which went into effect in 1985, providing how
jurisdictions could terminate (or “bail out” from) coverage under the
provisions of Section 4. Furthermore, after extensive hearings, Congress
amended Section 2 to provide that a plaintiff could establish a
violation of the Section without having to prove discriminatory
purpose.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
<section id="the-2006-amendments" class="slide level3">
<h3>The 2006 Amendments</h3>
<blockquote>
<p>Congress renewed the special provisions of the Act in 2006 as part of
the Fannie Lou Hamer, Rosa Parks, Coretta Scott King, Cesar E. Chavez,
Barbara Jordan, William Velazquez and Dr. Hector Garcia Voting Rights
Act Reauthorization and Amendments Act. The 2006 legislation eliminated
the provision for voting examiners.</p>
</blockquote>
</section>
</section>
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